Criminology Essay

by admin | Mar 21, 2023 | Uncategorized

Criminology in Brief: Understanding Crime Essay
The Crime
In 2013, an eighteen-year-old teenager, who was found guilty of raping a sixteen-year-old girl denied the crime. The girl woke up to find the boy raping her. The girl asserted that she was asleep and, therefore, did not consent to any act. The girl had adequate evidence that the boy had raped her. However, the boy emphasized that he had done nothing. The fact that the sexual crime was committed while the boy was sleepwalking, may suggest that the act has an association with sexsomnia (Eck and Weisburd, 1995).

Causes for the Crime
By raping the girl and claiming later that he had sexsomnia and was sleepwalking, this might be some form of self-actualisation. Through the rape, the boy might have been in a process of self- fulfilment. This means that the boy is a potential rapist and is, therefore, being actualised into what his potential being is. It is worth pointing out that the desire for creative fulfilment is usually greater than major basic needs. To prove his innocence and maintain his integrity and self-esteem, the boy blames sleep and sexomnia.

According to Abraham Maslow (Winfree & Abadinsky, 1996), several needs should be met for an individual to be satisfied (Winfree & Abadinsky, 1996). People have motivations within them, which make them aggressive in meeting their needs (Cressey and Ward, 1969). The hierarchy of needs is presented in a pyramid. On fulfilling some needs, people graduate to other needs, such as security and safety. The desire to have sex is one of the needs discussed by Maslow. Every individual needs to feel loved, intimate with other people, and maintain friendships with peers (Barlow, 1995). Needs motivate various actions; the boy needed to involve himself sexually with the girl. Consequently, he ended up raping her.

According to Attachment Theory, the majority of sex offenders have insecure attachments during childhood. In this case, the boy might have had an insecure childhood and, therefore, engaged in the act for self-interest (Winfree and Abadinsky, 1996). By engaging in rape, the boy was seeking some attachment and appreciation. Individuals who lack attachment during their childhood may use forceful means to acquire it in adulthood.

The Criminal Justice System
Criminal justice experts should first assess the boy’s level of attachment during his childhood, before passing judgement. There are several theories, which elaborate on why people engage in crime. Some social and environmental factors result in criminal behaviour. According to classical theory, every individual has free will and can engage in rational choice. However, some people are driven by social and psychological forces, even when they know the impacts of their acts. It is worth noting that criminals can make rational decisions. However, they engage in crime where they know there are no effective deterrence and punishment systems.

The criminal justice system should assess why the factors that contributed to the rape crime. There is a need to understand that environmental and genetic factors may result in a crime. Knowing these factors is useful in determining the individual’s rationality, and formulating effective disciplinary measures. In addition, they should offer advice to the guardians on how to help the boy. According to Agnew (2006), the recommended strategies for helping the boy include empathy training, cognitive distortions, autobiography, arousal control, and offence pathway.

Conclusion
Various factors lead to criminal acts. Human beings have various levels of needs. Lack of adequate attachment during childhood may make an individual a criminal. The criminal justice system should assess an individual’s background before passing judgement.

Agnew, R 2006, Pressured into crime: An overview of general strain theory, Oxford University Press, USA.

Barlow, HD 1995, Crime and public policy: Putting theory to work, Westview Press, New York.

Cressey, DR & Ward, DA 1969, Delinquency, crime, and social process, Harper & Row, New York.

Eck, JE & Weisburd, D 1995, “Crime places in crime theory”, Crime and place, crime prevention studies, vol. 4, pp. 1-33.

Winfree, LT & Abadinsky, H 1996, Understanding crime: Theory and practice, Nelson-Hall Publishers, New York.

Criminology Essay

by admin | Mar 21, 2023 | Uncategorized

Criminal Justice & Criminology Research Methods Essay
In criminal research, the inquiry process has a foundation, which is perceived to be observation. In most cases, it is difficult to comprehend why things appear in their statuses devoid of the presentation of certain things that must be understood. In fact, before giving an explanation on why something transpired, it is prudent to know exactly what that thing is. Nevertheless, since individuals observe carelessly the course of life events, they inaccurately and selectively perceive things. Thus, to reduce such errors, individuals need to make cautious observations based on deliberate plans. For instance, people need to observe and note events that happen in life deliberately. That is, people need to use both complicated and simple strategies to assist in guarding against errors related to selective and incorrect observations (Maxfield & Babbies, 2014).

Conversely, selective observation accrues as a result of overgeneralizing events that happen. For example, when an individual develops a universal understanding that a certain pattern normally exists; such a person is likely to assume that future events are similar and would overlook others that are not similar. The error related to selective observation can be reduced by conducting a similar study several times based on adequately large samples to check whether identical outcomes are attained every moment this is done (Maxfield & Babbies, 2014).

Social science theories: How does research contribute to the development of criminological theories?

In criminology, the developments of criminological theories have undergone various phases since Guerry (1863) and Quetelet (1842) first applied positivists’ methods. The moral statistical researchers studied the variation in the approved rates of crimes committed over a given period. The research conducted gave the same results and conclusions. That is, the officially recorded statistics showed that increased crime rates accrued from social activities, thus, giving birth to social theory in criminology. The effort put by these researchers in trying to tackle scientifically the emerging criminal problems was not biological but social (Heidt, 2011). The moral statisticians offered a foundation for developing criminological theories, which have since gone through a transition from positivism to classicism. In fact, most of the current criminological theories are informed by the official statistics offered in the study carried out by the first positivism researchers.

However, instead of focusing on society, the current criminological theories are based on studies that are rather focusing on the criminal actors. For instance, when the evolutionary theory emerged from the epic studies offered by Darwin (1859, 1871), researchers shifted their focus to the biological characteristics of criminality from the social traits. The individual differences theory developed by Lombroso (1876) centered on the significance of the physical aspects that distinguished non-criminals from criminals. The study has nonetheless become obsolete, but the positivists’ technique applied still has a permanent effect when devising criminology theories (Heidt, 2011). Therefore, the current theories in criminology have their roots in the previous and current studies conducted on criminal acts and crimes, which are based on sociological, physical, and biological attributes.

Threats of reliability and validity: How does the process of operationalizing study variables impact reliability and validity in criminological research?

In criminology research, a study is deemed reliable and valid when the results are similar and consistent if the same study is carried out again. Such findings are warranted by operationalizing the study variables. In most cases, operationalizing study variables ensures that a sample representing the entire population is chosen and an appropriate unit of analysis is applied. Every study variable appears to be well-defined operationally at similar levels of behaviors, traits, altitude and thought (Hartley, 2010). That is, through operationalizing study variables, any variable that would creep into the research and contaminate the research findings are screened out and the most suitable study methods and design are used. Study variables are operationalized provided the conceptual description is taken and made comprehensive enough by relating it to different operational definitions, concrete or specific indicators. Thus, operationalizing study variables warrants internal validity and reliability since it ensures that spurious study variables are screened out and consistent measurement tools are used to moderate errors caused by the user. Besides, operationalizing variables helps in defining a suitable timeframe for conducting the research, which increases the level of reliability and validity of the research study (Hartley, 2010).

References
Hartley, R. (2010). Snapshots of research: Readings in criminology and criminal justice. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Heidt, J. (2011). The evolution of criminological theories. Burnaby, Canada: Simon Fraser University Library Press.

Maxfield, M. & Babbies, E. (2014). Research methods for criminal justice and criminology. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.

Engineering Essay

by admin | Mar 21, 2023 | Uncategorized

Risk and Security in the Engineering Sector Essay
The engineering profession is an essential sector within the socio-economic structure in the operationalization of human activities. The experts uphold dynamic responsibilities based on the examination of the machinery and the safety for utilization. The specialists diagnose issues in a technological tool and practically modify them for better performance. However, the Engineering Council indicates profound initiatives that the individuals focus on while on duty. These facets include sustainability, risk, ethical principles, whistleblowing, and security (Engineering Council, 2021). Over the decades, different stakeholders integrated structures with computerizations for optimal output. Telemechanic and robotics significantly impact the living quotient among people because of the monitoring and repairing of electronics to render prime productivity.

Risks in the Engineering Sector
Economic growth and development intensified the business competence rendering a prominent effect on the quality of living. One of the consequences of engineering proficiency entails the advocacy for urbanization and proficient rural-urban migration. A significant percentage of the global population is relocating to cities and towns due to the accessibility of dynamic services and a decent lifestyle as a form of sustainability (Engineering Council, 2021). On the one hand, the movement fosters the necessity for transportation. On the other hand, the density of individuals within a region limits the importance of automobiles due to the ease in reachability. Distinct socio-economic values influence the consequential reserves and the exploitation marker.

Technological advancement fostered the intensification in socio-economic practices across dynamic geographical zones. The transportation industry offers a proficient advantage towards the growth and development of a region, according to researchers, incorporating land use mix steered by computerization systems renders the ultimate solution relating to pollution and sustainable practices (Engineering Council, 2021). Air, land, and sea carriage vessels cause dynamic impacts on the environment that is relative to human activities. One of the aspects is the construction of the industries to manufacture the elements and the processing of fuel, such as petroleum.

In this caliber, the trickle-down effect is the intensification of natural resource exploitation. Therefore, the integral ideology for developing the components facilitating traveling highly influences the value of the surroundings and the performance in the particular sector.

Different stakeholders utilize the machinery for distinct roles hence boosting productivity. Apart from the construction of the industries for the manufacturing and processing of the elements, the agricultural sector profoundly impacts the carriage locale. In the research, the authors focus on the contribution of farming businesses to socio-economic growth and development. The researchers establish that the profitability scale and productivity rely on the ease of movement of people and goods.

An excellent example is the distribution of fertilizers and seedlings among the farmers. The insufficiency and accessibility of the components during the season highly affects the process in tilling, planting, and harvesting. Ideally, agronomy is a framework that proficiently attributes the necessity of travel locally and globally. Effective cultivation involves the harvesting of more yields from the lands due to the optimal exploitation of engineering expertise (Engineering Council, 2021). Poor implementation of strategies, such as planning of the crofting and the developmental infrastructural entities, threatens the amount of yield from the vehement bustle.

Safety is a key factor among people and significantly affects the human behavioral system. Therefore, proper structuring, which steers the ease of movement, determines the importance of vehicles and trains. An excellent example of engineering expertise is a suitable design of a city hence inducing unassailability while personnel relocates to the homesteads. It is an approach that reflects through viable practices for professionals (Engineering Council, 2021). Although technological tools pose a negative effect on the environment, they also form the baseline for the workable philosophies.

The supply and management of parking for vehicles is a form of land use that significantly affects transportation resulting from engineering expertise. Researchers establish that possessing a car is a liability despite its trickle-down effect. One of the costs is the maintenance fee through the mechanical repairs, checkups, and the bay aspects for people (Engineering Council, 2021). The integral components foster a profound impact on affordability among people hence contributing as a limiting factor to the increase in purchase behavior. According to the researchers, it is the responsibility of the relevant stakeholders to incorporate strategies, such as increasing commuter trains to enhance the bulk traveling of persons.

It is an initiative that reduces the essence of cumulative locomotives serving the same purpose while causing traffic and pollution to the environment. The accumulation of cars in cities intensifies the emission of carbon monoxide. The exhaust fumes affect the air inhaled by dwellers causing respiratory poisoning and incrementally degrading the ozone layer leading to the penetration of infrared sun rays that are cancerous. Primarily, it is important to enhance the reduction of automobiles to render a minimal effect on the environment while promoting the optimal movement of goods and people.

Security in the Engineering Sector
Efficiency in the exploitation of technological resources depends on engineers’ proficiency in the application of ethical principles. According to research, the four fundamental pillars include integrity and honesty, rigor and accuracy, communication and leadership, and respecting the law and sustainability initiatives (Engineering Council, 2021). Ideally, the incorporation of the strategies elevates the effectiveness of the utilities, such as the transportation infrastructure. In this case, it is crucial to indicate the interplay of the distinct variables that impact the quality of living and the expertise among the participants.

Technological advancement whetted the intensification in human activities, causing the diversification to enhance optimal productivity. On the one hand, carriage renders the ease in movement of people and goods from one region to another. On the other hand, the concept compromises nature’s aesthetic value based on the prominent factor of pollution. The human activity element depicts a potent approach through three spectral views, including air, water, and terrain.

Despite the coordination among all relevant stakeholders, the typical contribution of machinery in the profanation fosters a profound impact on the environment hence the necessity to determine the relative variables (Engineering Council, 2021). Apart from the distinct effect of freightage infrastructure, the dynamic use of the solid ground poses profound consequences for the development of the structures leaving the passage. Whistleblowing becomes an emblem of the profound interdependent structure of policing ethical principles and sustainability locally and globally.

Reference
Engineering Council. (2021). State of Ethical Principles. Web.

Engineering Essay

by admin | Mar 21, 2023 | Uncategorized

The Concept and Underlying Science of Hyperloop Research Paper
Introduction
The Hyperloop is a transportation system (high speed) that accelerates high-speed pods through a low-pressure tube. The core idea behind this concept is to achieve the highest maximum speed of almost the speed of sound. Creating this system provides a fast and cost-effective traveling mode between cities with around 900 miles. Elon Musk conceptualized this convenient model in 2012. Elon Musk is a leasing tech entrepreneur owning and heading several companies (high profile) such as Tesla Motors and Space X.

Hyperloop Design
Fig. 1: Hyperloop Design
Some of the hypothetical benefits of Hyperloop technology are energy generation for its operations, low power requirements, rapid speed, lack of crashes, and immunity to weather, to mention a few (Gray, 2013, p. 1). Both building and designing the Hyperloop face several economic and technical challenges. Across the United States, a team of around 100 engineers by 2016 completed a technical feasibility study. This study assessed if it was realistic to venture into the technology from an engineering point of view. Elon Musk estimated that implementing an Hyperloop version (full passenger-plus-cargo) would cost around USD 7.5 billion. Critics argue that the project’s final cost could cost around ten times more.

The Concept and Design of the Hyperloop
After the 2012 initial proposal by Elon Musk, engineers from both Tesla Motors and SpaceX worked together informally for almost a year (around nine months). They were working to create a reasonable Hyperloop cost assessment and engineering proposal. The proposal was released in 2013 August. Hyperloop operations are copied from a railgun and the Concorde supersonic jet. The railgun employs the principles of electrodynamics to accelerate projectile with supersonic speeds (Abdelrahman, Sayeed and Youssef, 2017, p. 7429). The hyperloop also employs the air hockey table principle, which creates minute air bearings that act as a cushion to enable objects to move with minute friction. The original proposal by Elon Musk suggested the LA (Los Angeles) to San Fransico route, which could be taking around 35 minutes. The route takes 1 hour with a plane and 5 hours when using a vehicle. Along the track will be mounted solar panels, which will provide the energy used in accelerating and maintaining the speed of the Hyperloop.

Mounted Solar Panel on the Outside of the Hyperloop Tube
Fig. 2: Mounted Solar Panel on the Outside of the Hyperloop Tube
By 2016, two major competing companies came up with different proposals of bringing the reality of the concept of designing the Hyperloop. The first company was a classic tech startup, the Hyperloop Technologies, and it had venture funds of around $37Million, 72 employees, and industrial-chic office and venture. A worldwide consortium, Hyperloop Transportation Technologies was the second company with 450 entrepreneurs, engineers, and scientists working part-time to exchange the company’s equity. Each of these two companies explored different routes of proposing the track of the Hyperloop. The first proposal was investigating Los Angeles (LA)- Las Vegas route. The other proposal announced the plans of constructing a partial track on the LA-San Francisco route as proposed by the first proposal. The representatives of the two firms argued that there was a great possibility of implementing the Hyperloop in the Middle East or Asia because of the increased need for fast and efficient transport and reduced bureaucracy in the region than in the United States.

Space X company, owned by Elon Musk, announced an open competition for independent engineering teams and university students to develop the best design and build the most effective and efficient Hyperloop pod. More than 120 teams participated in the competition, which was targeted to select the best finalist. The finalist would test and build pods at the headquarters of space X in the 2016 summer. The idea of this aspect was to create the best final design, which would be selected to be used for commercial purposes. On 2016 January 30th, a team of MIT graduate students won the competition (first stage). They created an innovative pod that employed the design of utilizing magnetic levitation other than using air cushioning to reduce the friction of the pods.

Hyperloop is considered one of the major anticipations that will provide a carbon-neutral and faster way of connecting cities. Indeed, the vision of the Hyperloop systems visions to run effectively with renewable energies (exclusively). It is argued that the hyperloop system will have the capabilities of producing more energy than it will be consuming. The propositions of installing solar panels outside the Hyperloop tube will have chargeable batteries that will store the energy used during the night. The companies that will build the Hyperloop system will consider constructing elevated tracks on the major road medians (Musk, 2013, p. 2). The elevated tracks will also be constructed on existing railway lines to reduce the construction impacts, which can affect people living nearby, natural spaces, and ecosystems. The system can be built below or above the ground. The building above the ground will be done in those areas where land prices are cheap, and there are no obstacles. Tunneling will be a feasible option where the community is dense and more developed, such as the United Kingdom. Tunnels will be constructed in those areas where it will not be possible to clear the densely built-up areas.

Physics (Science) of the Hyperloop
The design of the Hyperloop must overcome several technical challenges with the core aim of achieving desirable speeds cost-effectively. The design must also ensure that all advantages are achieved without risking human health and life. As a result, several solutions provide the challenges presented in the “alpha” proposal in 2013 by Elon Musk. Linear induction series of motors would be employed in the Hyperloop pod to achieve the proposed Los Angeles-San Francisco 35 minutes trip to accelerate the pod to nearly the speed of sound (approximately 760 miles/hour).

The principle of the Linear Induction Motor Series
This principle is the same as that applied by the induction motors. In this case, variant magnetic fields (space-time) is produced by the primary parts in the air gap where the secondary part induces the EMF (electromotive part) conducting sheet. Eddy currents are generated by the electromotive force, which interacts with the flux in the air gap to generate Lorenz’s force (thrust). The two common types of linear induction motors include the short primary type (SP) and the Long Primary Type (LP) (Lee, Kim and Lee, 2006. P. 1921) The Short Primary Type uses the conducting sheets on the guideway and stator coils on board. On the other side, the Long Primary Type has conducting sheets on board while the stator coils are on the guideway. The core advantage of the short primary type is that it reduces construction costs because it is easier to lay the guideway with aluminum sheets. The main disadvantage with this type is that it has an end effect that causes leakage inductance and drags force, making the system have low energy efficiency.

Levitation
For the pods to accelerate with approximately 760 miles in an hour, there is supposed to be some way of alleviating friction forces between the tube and the pod. Indeed, magnetic levitation is one of the possible mechanisms. In this case, very large permanent magnets would be employed in suspending the pod between the top and the bottom of the tube (Ji et al. 2018, p.2). Indeed, this idea was dismissed by Elon Musk at the beginning of the proposal because of the cost of the idea. The other second method of alleviating the forces of friction between the tube and the pod was using the air bearings, which are employed an air hockey table. The air hockey table eliminates the rolling resistance by using the cushioning by air when supporting the pods.

Propelling the Pods through a Vacuum Hyperloop Tube
The other scientific challenge facing the Hyperloop is reducing the large friction caused by air when the hyperloop is moving through the tube. Indeed, this aspect is supposed to be reduced to attain the aspect of high-speed transportation. In this case, one of the possible ways of reducing the air resistance was propelling the pods through a vacuum tube. This idea of creating a vacuum has different shortcomings. One of them is that the concept would be very expensive. The pumps which can be used in creating the vacuum inside the tube are extremely costly. The other significant shortcoming is that any malfunction of the equipment utilizing this concept would cause devastating to the operations of the Hyperloop. Indeed, this problem can be addressed by proposing the Hyperloop tube to operate with 1/6 of the atmosphere of Mars (very low pressure) of about 100 Pascals. Notably, a pressure of 100 Pascals (1000 times less) than the sea-level atmospheric pressure. In this condition, air resistance is reduced drastically. Indeed, this reduced pressure means that after the initial acceleration, the pods can move in the tube without any thrust until they reach their destination after the journey ends.

Aerodynamics
Designing the pods with aerodynamics is vital even when the Hyperloop tubes operate at very low pressure. In addition, the material costs should be kept down, which implies that the area of the cross-section of both the Hyperloop pod and Hyperloop tube should be very close to each other. The walls of the pod should be very close to the walls of the tube. When the walls are close to each other, the pod operates like a syringe (Sui et al. 2021., p.121427). This aspect means that it pushes the entire air column in the front when it is moving instead of allowing air to move around it. Because the tube is very long (hundreds of miles), the effect would be playing a vital role in enabling the pod to throttle with the maximum speed inside the tube. In this case, the Kantrowitz limit is the maximum speed that can be achieved by a pod of a specific crossectional area to move inside a tube. Overcoming this issue would mean that an ideal pod should be created.

Hyperloop Aerodynamics
Fig. 3: Hyperloop Aerodynamics
Attaining Kantrowitz limit
The building of an ideal pod to attain the Kantrowitz limit means to engineer an ideal pod by fixing the pod’s nose with an electric compressor fan. The fan will be playing a vital role in pumping the high-pressure air from the front part of the pod to behind. Indeed, pumping air below the pod will be functioning as an air cushion hence serving the purpose of an “air hockey table.” It is a concept that would create the air-cushion suspension effect. In addition, according to Elon Musk, the design Hyperloop will be designed such that the passengers experience a 0.5g inertial acceleration (maximum). This inertial acceleration is 2-3 times that experienced by passengers in a jet when taking off and also when landing. It will only be achieved when the Hyperloop functions effectively. Notably, the pod’s design which will be used in the Hyperloop, is not yet finished. As a result, the precise science (physics) of the tech which will be used in addressing aerodynamics, reducing friction, and acceleration of the pod concerns are still underway and hence being a subject of change.

Mathematical Representation of the Kantrowitz limit
Equation 1: Mathematical Representation of the Kantrowitz limit
Practicality
Elon Musk suggested that the practicality of transporting 7.4 million a year would mean that the system will operate 12 hours a day, where a capsule has to depart after every one minute. In addition, the Hyperloop transport system would require airport security protocol. This aspect implicates that the system will also face inevitable technical hitches that will lead to delays. As a result, these hitches can drastically reduce the number of people traveling with the system. In addition, the system will also have peak times when commuters are returning home from work and when they are reporting to work. Sometimes, the transport system will be quiet and busy during peak times. The chances of transporting the maximum number of people during the peak times. Comparing the cost of the High-Speed Rail link between the two cities and the cost of the Hyperloop system shows that the Hyperloop system will be more economical and fulfill the transport needs. Several Hyperloops can be constructed to meet the transport demand of the passengers between Los Angeles and San Francisco.

Bibliography
Abdelrahman, A.S., Sayeed, J. and Youssef, M.Z., 2017. Hyperloop transportation system: analysis, design, control, and implementation. IEEE Transactions On Industrial Electronics, 65(9), pp.7427-7436.

Gray, R. 2013. The Hyperloop: flawed fantasy or achievable challenge. The Telegraph Online, Technology News, pp. 3.

Ji, W.Y., Jeong, G., Park, C.B., Jo, I.H. and Lee, H.W., 2018. A study of non-symmetric double-sided linear induction motor for Hyperloop All-In-One System (propulsion, levitation, and guidance). IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, 54(11), pp.1-4.

Lee, H.W., Kim, K.C. and Lee, J., 2006. Review of maglev train technologies. IEEE transactions on magnetics, 42(7), pp.1917-1925.

Musk, E. 2013. Hyperloop Alpha. Hyperloop Alpha Proposal, Tesla Motors, pp. 3.

Sui, Y., Niu, J., Yu, Q., Yuan, Y., Cao, X. and Yang, X., 2021. Numerical analysis of the aerothermodynamic behavior of an Hyperloop in choked flow. Energy, 237, p.121427.

Engineering Essay

by admin | Mar 21, 2023 | Uncategorized

Properties of Engineering Materials Essay
Definition
Grouping of engineering materials based on class divides them into groups such as metallic materials, ceramic materials, materials made of polymer, composite materials and electronic materials Metallic materials are strong and ductile at room temperature. Their strength even a high temperatures remains high, and they have high electrical and thermal conductivities. Polymeric materials are poor electrical and thermal conductors, the have low to medium strengths, have low densities, they are easy to process into final shape and some of them are transparent. Ceramic materials have high hardness, are mechanically brittle, have high temperature strength and have poor electrical and thermal conductivities. Composite materials have a wide range of strength, and they have very useful strengths at a low cost. Electronic materials are light in weight, can transmit electrical signals in a complex manner and they are energy efficient. In terms of the electrons in an atom, the materials may either be of solid solution or of crystal defects and non-crystalline structure. Those of solid solution are said to have chemical imperfection while the latter are said to have imperfection.

Physical properties
Density is the mass per unit volume of the material and is represented as a ratio. Its unit in the SI system is Kg/m3. Thermal conductivity is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat and is denoted by k/ lambda/ kappa. Heat transfer takes place at a lower rate in materials of low thermal conductivity and the vice versa is also true. Electrical conductivity of materials is a property which represents how easily electricity can be conducted by the material. It is the reciprocal of resistivity of material and its unit is mho/meter. Super conductivity refers to the disappearance of electrical resistance in various solids when cooled below a characteristic temperature ( transition temperature) which varies according to the material but is usually below 20K. Specific heat of a material is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of unit mass of material by one degree Celsius and is denoted by the letter S. Its unit in SI system is Joule/kg 0C. Melting range is the difference in temperatures from the point at which crystals first begin to liquefy to the point whereby the entire sample is liquid.

Thermal expansion refers to the tendency of matter to change its shape, area, volume and density in response to a change in temperature with the exception of phase transitions. Magnetic properties of engineering materials may be divided into four. Paramagnetic materials are weakly attracted by the magnet, ferromagnetic materials are strongly attracted by the magnetic field, antiferromagnetic materials have a net magnetic moment of zero while ferromagnetic materials have small magnetic moments. The optical properties of an engineering material defines its interaction with light. The four optical properties that are mostly considered are refraction, absorption, reflection, and scattering of light. Corrosion resistance is the ability of a material to hold the binding energy of a metal and withstand deterioration and the chemical breakdown that would occur when the material is exposed to such an environment. Phase transformations usually occur when a material changes its composition and structure. Such a transformation may be due to temperature changes or due to reaction with another material. Fluidity refers to the ability of a substance to flow easily and the state of the material to be and remain fluid.

Mechanical properties
When a material is stressed by an amount that is less than its yield stress, it will go through a reversible strain and no permanent deformation of the material will occur. The level of stress corresponding to the yield point is the yield strength of the material. Tensile strength of a material is the maximum load it can support without fracture when being stretched by the original cross-sectional area of the material. Shear strength is the ability of the material to resist forces that may cause the internal structure of the material to slide against itself. Elongation is a measure of deformation that occurs before a material breaks due to subjection to a tensile load. Young’s module is a property of engineering materials that tells how easily it can stretch and deform. It is defined as the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain. Modulus of rigidity is the measure o rigidity of a body and is expressed as a ratio of shear stress to shear strain.

Ductility refers to the degree to which a material can sustain plastic deformation under tensile stress before failure. Impact strength refers to the resistance of a material to fracture by a blow and is expressed in terms of the amount of energy absorbed before fracture (Jansen). Fatigue resistance is the measure of the bearing’s strength regarding combustion engines where the loading takes a cyclic direction and intensity. Hardness is the measure of how much a material resists changes in shape while failure analysis is carrying out an investigation to determine the cause of failure with an aim of taking action to correct the problem and prevent future failures. Malleability is an important factor for materials to have as it determines how they may be altered by external forces hence change in shape.

Manufacturing process
Hardenability is a step in the manufacturing process involves hardening the engineering material to a certain depth by passing it through a heat treatment process. It is followed by precipitation hardening which makes use of the heating application to make the material tougher. This makes the material strong as it is hardened by adding solid impurities (precipitates) ( Fukumoto). Annealing also involves a heating process that changes the physical and sometimes the chemical properties of a material to increase its ductility and reduce hardness hence making it more workable. Cold work does not require any ignition and it involves plastic deformation that is caused by pressing and rolling at room temperature. Heat treatment involves heating a metal while at the same time ensuring it does not reach its molten stage and then cooling it controllably to select its desired mechanical properties (Sarma 561-564). Machines are involved in each step of the manufacturing process to ensure proper conversion of raw materials into the required finished products.

Materials and environment
Most of the engineering materials are acquired from the natural environment and help to improve in the construction works for the improvement of the economy. However, it is important for the people involved to acquire these materials in moderation to prevent harming the environment. Increased acquisition of wood, for example, may lead to increased deforestation and hence increased spread of drought and famine. Proper knowledge on the life cycle and sustainability of materials enables the engineers involved to measure how long a certain material can serve the construction work it is involved in. Once this time is not put into consideration, the material may end up harming the environment and causing damages to the construction work. It is also vital for the engineer to be credible in his/her job to be able to appropriately select materials which are good for the environment and the work at hand. He/she should also be in a position to differentiate the renewable and non-renewable materials as improper use of these materials may lead to devastating effects on the environment such as climate change. Even as these factors are put in place, they may not be effective if the legislations put in place in conservation of materials are not adhered to or followed strictly. The legislators should put in place laws that benefit the environment and ensure harsh punishments for those who go against these laws.

Cost analysis
It is important for the engineer to have a step by step break down of the resources that are likely to be used in the construction work and calculate the cost of each of them. He/ she should also leave room for excess resources to be used and include that in the calculation. The engineering design process should also be considered to determine which materials will be used more and hence the necessary calculations to be made. Development scaling usually involves a concept that includes laboratory testing, pilot scale testing and the production scale. All these processes ensure the materials used produce high quality work and they do not deteriorate within a short period after completion of the project. The concept of the economy of scale helps the engineer to match the materials with their existing prices in the market to accurately determine how much to put aside regarding the materials. Cost estimation is important before the construction works begin to prevent misusing the finances or running out of these finances before completion of the work.

Works Cited
Fukumoto, Ken-ichi. Irradiation hardening behavior of he-irradiated V-Cr-Ti alloys with low Ti addition. Quantam Beam Science 5(1), 2020.

Jansen, Victor. The relation between impact strength and flexural strength of materials. Journal of Mechanical Behavior of Engineering Materials, 2021.

Sarma, Jitupan. Enhancement of material properties through heat treatment process. Materials Today: Proceedings 23, 2020.

Zingales, Massimiliano. Advanced materials modelling via fractional calculus. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 2020.