Biology Essay

by admin | Mar 20, 2023 | Uncategorized

Biological Diversity and Cultural Diversity Essay
Biological and cultural diversity determine human background and heritage, cultural preferences and uniqueness. Culture is that unique characteristic that separates the human from the rest of the world of living things. It is the primary means of human adaptation, the basis for the majority of human thought and behavior. Biological diversity determines a set of genes and color of skin, i.e. biological and physical characteristics. Thesis In spite of visible physical characteristics and racial differences, biological diversity does not necessities a commitment to cultural diversity.

Biological diversity does not necessitate a commitment to cultural diversity because many people lost their values and traditions associated with biological (racial) differences and accepted new national values and morals. For instance, during the first and the second waves of immigration European and Asian immigrants accepted new cultural values and traditions in America. They remembered their ancestry but did not follow cultural and national traditions of their native land. Culture makes all humans basically the same, yet it also makes them different as each human group creates and develops its own version of culture designed to respond to their own particular needs and wants, and because of the choices they make (Smiers 14). Culture is created by people in response to the specific conditions, problems, or limitations that they face in the natural environment, and the socio-cultural ones that they create.

The era of globalization has a great impact on perception and understanding of the concept of race and culture, diversity and origin. Americans have always taken pride in their diversity, in their own individual heritages, and in certain ideas that they have assumed were uniquely American. Their “heritage” was something they used to refer to their individual ancestry and linkage to the “old country,” wherever that might have been. Culture was a phenomenon in and of itself, unique, shaping how people lived their lives and yet independent of the people it shaped. When called upon, assumed, or used by Americans, culture has been used to characterize those “other” people, or to identify the differences between the American way of life (culture) and that of other groups of people “somewhere out there” in the world (Smiers 76). Biological diversity does not necessitate a commitment to cultural diversity because while people share culture because they learn it, this extra-somatic phenomenon lay beyond people (Sowel 36). Race could not touch it. Part of culture or of a culture is readily observable, such as rules, ideas, beliefs, and recipes for organizing people and doing things, all of which people can explicitly describe, talk about, explain, or argue about. But there is another part of culture that is not readily observable and must be inferred from the way observable action and talk are organized (George and Yancey i1). Biological diversity does not necessitate a commitment to cultural diversity because individuals are not born with culture; they have to learn it. See questions in the article: “Since my face and my ethnicity are in conflict, how do I express my cultural background? (See 60). Although the biological basis or capacity for culture is obvious, it is not something inherited along with one’s physical characteristics.

In sum, biological diversity does not necessities a commitment to cultural diversity because each generation of humans has to learn culture all over again or it will not survive. Thus, biological and cultural diversity can conflict because of the growing migrations of people, the fragmentations and complexity of the modern nation-state, and increasingly violent conflicts tied to ethnic groups.

Works Cited
See, L. “My Face does not match my race”. Self, Nov, (1999): 60-61.

Smiers, J. Arts Under Pressure: Protecting Cultural Diversity in the Age of Globalisation. Zed Books Ltd, 2003.

Sowel, T. Race and Culture: A World View. Basic Books; New Ed edition 1995.

George, D., Yancey, G. Taking Stock of America’s Attitudes on Cultural Diversity: An Analysis of Public Deliberation on Multiculturalism, Assimilation and Intermarriage. Journal of Comparative Family Studies 35 (2004).

Biology Essay

by admin | Mar 20, 2023 | Uncategorized

Biology and Behavior in the Teaching Process Essay
General Overview
Information to be taught
The main set of information to be taught on the issue of the brain and neural and hormonal systems includes the principles of the work of the brain and endocrine system as well as the neural system. The connection between the structure and functions of different parts of the human brain should be taught due to its direct relation to human behavior which is the main focus of this course. Besides, it is necessary to offer links and facts important to shape the overall concept of this issue.

Information to be omitted
What should be omitted while presenting the information on biology and human behavior is the conclusion. In other words, the professor should introduce facts and ideas on this issue but should not explain how this or that concept influences human behavior in detail. It is possible to provoke in-class discussion by suggesting certain ways in which the biology of the human brain, neural, and hormonal systems can influence psychological behavior.

Organization of the Teaching Process
The sequence of presentation
The sequence of the presentation can coincide with the one offered by Myers (2007) who analyzes the biological aspects of psychological behavior about neural and hormonal systems as integral parts of the system called human organism that also inevitably impact the behavior in this or that way. Moreover, it is possible to use an encyclopedia-approach such as one applied in the study by Christensen, Martin, and Smyth (2004) or by Craighead and Nemeroff (2004).

Way of teaching
The approach mentioned above fits lectures as well as a class discussion because students can search for relevant information and come to the class having some ideas on those issues in mind. However, a class discussion can be more effective because a professor can guide students in terms of the right way to be followed. Though it is possible to learn different facts and theories from library and web sources, it is preferable to share information to understand the relations better.

Special materials
The materials mentioned above are appropriate for teaching whereas it is also possible to use websites and guides relevant to this topic. However, it is necessary to use only reputable sources such as evidence-based researches and peer-reviewed articles. In other words, it is necessary to organize the process of teaching so that all topics were acquired in a proper sequence about previous and coming ones. Web lectures are appropriate if a professor only presents information and does not provoke discussion.

Importance of the Material
Connection to everyday life
It is necessary to show students the importance of this information and its relation to everyday life. Biology should be discussed as the primary concept whereas psychology should be analyzed about biological functions, processes, and abnormalities that may influence the psychology of human behavior. So, the everyday lives of students should be related to topics discussed in class through vivid examples such as ‘hormonal responses to emotional stress’ discussed by Craighead and Nemeroff (2004, p. 405).

Science of psychology
As psychological behavior is influenced greatly by the physiology of the human organism, it is necessary to know relations and possible interactions and mutual influence of systems about potential problems that may occur. This content should be discussed about the entire organism and the scope of processes that take place in its maintenance.

Reference List
Christensen, A. J., Martin, R., and Smyth, J. M. (2004). Encyclopedia of health psychology. New York: Springer.

Craighead, W. E., and Nemeroff, C. B. (2004). The concise Corsini encyclopedia of psychology and behavioral science (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.

Myers, D. G. (2007). Exploring psychology, seventh edition, in modules. New York: Worth Publishers.

Biology Essay

by admin | Mar 20, 2023 | Uncategorized

Biology of Memory: Origins and Structures Research Paper
Abstract
Memory is a term used in cognitive psychology to describe the process by which information is coded, stored and retrieved. Encoding involves the conversion of sensory stimuli into forms that can be stored. Storage is the process of forming long term mental records of the information.

Retrieval is the process of extracting information from memory. Memory can be classified into sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory. Memory can be enhanced using techniques such as rehearsal, paying attention, use of mnemonics, and active participation. Active participation is thought to be better than rehearsal. Memory can be tested using techniques such as operant conditioning, recognition, free recall, and detection paradigm.

Memory
Memory is a mental function that enables humans to keep information for later use. It can also be described as a term used in cognitive psychology to describe how people encode, store and retrieve information about the environment (Gazzaniga, Ivry, & Mangun, 1998). This essay will begin with a discussion about memory processes.

This will be followed by a section on classification of memory into sensory, short term, and long term memory. The various types of memory will be discussed in detail. Methods of studying memory will also be examined in this paper. Finally, it will end in a section on personal reflection.

The stages of memory formation include encoding, storage, and retrieval. Information passes the three stages sequentially. Encoding generates information that can stored. Stimuli reaching the brain are received and processed into forms that can be used to represent the stimuli. Encoding generates verbal, acoustic, and image codes. These codes provide avenues by which information can be retrieved. Therefore, it can be said that retrieval relies on encoding. Interpretation of the codes is a function of memory.

Storage
Storage can be described as creation of a long term record in the brain. Storage is a complex stage of memory formation that involves other sub-stages. At this level, the coded information is received and packaged in a manner that will allow its retrieval later. Information may be stored in a hierarchical manner.

For example, skills that are frequently used may be moved to the subconscious portion of the mind. Depending on how long information has been in storage, memory can be classified into sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory.

Sensory memory
Sensory memory is a part of memory that holds information from the environment for a short time. The information is stored for a period of time ranging from a fraction of a second to about a minute. It provides temporary storage for information generated by the sensory organs. It stores the information in the original sensory form.

Examples of sensory memory include iconic memory and echoic memory. Iconic memory carries visual information and lasts for almost 25 seconds. It is a temporary storage for visual information. Echoic memory is a temporary storage for information coming from the ears. Echoic memory lasts for several seconds. Haptic memory is creates a temporary record of tactile information. Information coming from the sensory system is rich in content. However, human beings cannot convert all the information into memory forms.

Short term memory
Short term memory also known as working memory is a form of memory that lasts for several seconds to a minute. Rehearsal can improve short term memory. Short term memory can store a limited amount of information at a time. It can store up to five distinct items at any given time (Cowan, 2001).

However, it has been found out that grouping items like numbers can improve short term memory. Short term memory enables the manipulation of information when attending to activities like decision making and problem solving. It is the form of memory that is constantly in use and allows an individual to interact effectively with the environment. Short term memory may rely on acoustic codes. However, this is not true for all types of information.

Long term memory
Long term memory is a relatively long term form of memory where vast amounts of information are stored. Its capacity is thought to be limitless. Long term memory enables us to recall events that took place several years back. Long term memory is our main repository of information. It shapes our understanding of the environment. Types of repositories in the long term memory include declarative, procedural, and flash back memories.

Declarative memory also known as explicit memory is a form of long term memory that requires the conscious recall of information that can be verbalized. For example, describing the process of neurotransmission to students. Declarative memory is further classified into episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory involves storage of information regarding events that were personally experienced.

It enables an individual to recall events that happened at a certain time in the past. It is a form of memory that stores personal experiences. Semantic memory is personalized. It stores general, factual, and abstract information. Information about ones area of expertise, academic knowledge, knowledge of places, knowledge of people, and knowledge about meaning of words is stored in semantic memory. Learning relies on semantic memory.

Procedural memory is memory that stores psychomotor skills. Information needed to execute certain skills like driving and playing a musical instrument are stored in procedural memory. It stores knowledge that cannot be verbalized but is important in the performance of some activities. It has been described as memory that stores information about how to do things.

Flash back memory stores information that is associated with emotional moments. Events that are linked to certain emotions can be recalled quickly and more accurately. For example, asking people where they were when a close family member passed away. Flash back memory is concerned with storage of unusual events. It tends to be personal in nature.

Retrieval
Retrieval is the process of accessing and taking information out of storage. Typically, information is pulled out of storage when it is needed. Retrieval can be complicated by factors like lack of concentration and interference. Retrieval is associated with certain recall states like tip of the tongue, and serial position effect.

Tip of the tongue refers to a state in which one cannot recall all the information. In such a case an individual is able to only retrieve or recall some characteristics of the information. Serial position effect refers to a situation in which an individual can recall either the first few items (primary effect) or the last items of a list (recency effect). Recall can be prompted using either specific or general retrieval cues.

Memory problems
Forgetting is described as difficulty in retrieving information. Inability to recall information has been linked to some factors like decay, interference, lack of cues, and presence of disorders like amnesia. Decay refers to inability to recall due to disappearance of information over time. This happens when information is not frequently rehearsed or used. Information that is not needed can interfere with retrieval of information (Ellenbogen et al, 2006). This can occur when retrieval cues are no longer specific.

Factors facilitating memory
Rehearsal: repeating and reciting information enhances the number of meaningful associations that can be formed. Memory improves with the number of rehearsals. Self-questioning strategies can be used to enhance this technique. Self-questioning strategies increase the number of associations that can be formed by learners.

Organization: information can be arranged in a particular way to enhance memory. Chunking is one of the strategies used to organize information. Meaningfulness: this strategy encourages students to personalize information by giving personal meaning to it. This strategy is superior to reciting and rehearsing. It is easy to recall information that has meaning. This strategy enables a learner to relate what is being learned with real life situations thus forming long term memory.

Mnemonic devices: these memory aids include loci, acronyms, and key words. Loci method involves positioning of items to be remembered in specific areas of the house. An individual will use a mental map to locate the items in the house thus aiding memory.

Activity: this strategy is used to enhance memory by encouraging students to actively participate in their learning.

Attention/concentration: attention and elimination of distractions enhances learning and the formation of memory.

Methods used to study memory
Techniques used to study memory differ for infants and adults. The methods used to study infants are unique because infants cannot report on what they have learned. Methods used to study infants’ recognition memory are: operant conditioning and visual paired comparison procedure. The methods used to study infants’ recall memory are: deferred imitation technique and elicited imitation technique (Barr, Dowden, & Hayne, 1996).

Methods used to study adults: paired associate learning, recognition, free recall, and detection paradigm. Paired associate learning is a technique that involves learning to associate one item with another. Free recall involves asking subjects to learn some words. The subjects are then asked to recall the items. Detection paradigm tests the ability to remember visual information.

This paper discussed memory in detail. Memory is a term used in cognitive psychology to describe the process by which information is coded, stored and retrieved.

Encoding involves the conversion of sensory stimuli into forms that can be stored. Storage is the process of forming long term mental records of the information. Retrieval is the process of extracting information from memory. Memory can be classified into sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory. Long term memory is the storehouse of knowledge about our surroundings.

Memory can be enhanced using techniques such as rehearsal, paying attention, use of mnemonics, and active participation. Active participation is thought to be better than rehearsal. Memory can be tested using various techniques. The techniques used to test infants are different from those used to test older children and adults. This is due to the fact that infants cannot verbalize what they have learned. In infants, recognition memory and recall memory are tested separately. Therefore, it is difficult to study children.

References
Barr, R., Dowden, A., & Hayne, H. (1996). Developmental changes in deferred imitation by 6- to 24-month-old infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 19, 159–170.

Cowan, N. (2001). The magical number 4 in short-term memory: a reconsideration of mental storage capacity. Behav Brain Sci, 24(1), 87–114.

Ellenbogen et al. (2006). Interfering with theories of sleep and memory: sleep, declarative memory, and associative interference. Curr. Biol., 16 (13), 1290–4. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.05.024

Gazzaniga, M., Ivry, R., & Mangun, G. (1998). Cognitive neuroscience: The biology of the mind. London: Norton.

Politics Essay

by admin | Mar 20, 2023 | Uncategorized

Politics Definition & Meaning Essay
Introduction
Politics is arguably the most renowned and constantly debated issue across the world due to an exceptionally diverse history coupled with endless controversies. The concept of politics and its theory has existed in almost throughout all the documented political science literature. As simple as it looks, the concept of politics can prove significantly challenging especially when individuals are struggling to understand its actual meaning, as different pieces of literature and theories posit different intuitions about the meaning of politics, thus resulting in a mixture of understandings.

In proletarian terms, politics principally refers the art or science involved in governing especially that consist political entity such as administration techniques over a nation and its citizens. Different perceptions over the concept of politics have existed and are augmenting in the political science literature. Based on such conceptions, this essay seeks to examine the concept of politics as articulated in Weber’s ‘politics as a vocation’ and in Lane’s ‘Pitkin’s dilemma: the wider shores of political theory and political science’.

Meaning of politics
The concept of politics, just as postulated by Weber (77), is actually a diverse discipline that comprises any form of sovereign leadership engaged in actions. An elaborative meaning from my personal understanding, politics can principally refer to actions or activities of governing or form of leadership that artily or technically entail managing citizens, a nation, and its resources. A considerably key issue in the concept of politics as assumed by Lane is that the “idea of strategic interactive behavior is the central phenomenon of politics” (460).

To concur with this conception created by Lane from a wider pool of reasoning, politics generally involves activities of a government designed by and for people living within certain social structures including small regions to global spectrum (Weber 79). However, politics is just akin to an organization where laws and regulations imposed by top officials play a critical role in the management of capital and human resources.

Politics thus involves certain aspects of power and structures developed in hierarchical order, which are currently eminent in the prevailing world political order. As Weber discerns, in politics “there is the authority of the extraordinary and personal gift of grace (charisma), the absolutely personal devotion and personal confidence in revelation, heroism or other qualities of individual’s leadership” (79). In its broadest sense, politics is a form of governance that requires an inclusion of the aspects of power or supremacy.

Human relationships, as nature, spur development of the aspect of political growth as political experiences in the modern days are becoming more eminent in human relationships. From perceptions and conceptions revealed from Lane and Weber, a collective meaning of politics emerges. Politics can thus mean activities of strategically managing human beings and resources in a given nation through certain systems of governance that may also involve using power or authority in such administration.

Contrast between Weber and Lane’s conceptions of politics
A combination of conceptions protracting from Lane and Weber may draw an accurate meaning of the concept of politics if well understood. However, the two authors portray significant contrast in their general intuition about politics. Weber’s main perception about politics is the sense that politics are individuals’ power struggle to have control over the state or nation. Weber believes that nations or a state itself is a major source of violence and hence, “politics for us means striving to share power or striving to influence the distribution of power, either among states or among groups within a state”( 85).

Supremacy and charismatic leadership must dominate a nation for human beings to have proper governance in any social structure and that centrality of violence for the state is important. Similar to such perceptions developed, a similar intuition is inherent in the literature documented by Lane (461), where he suggests that whether in human relations, verbal communication, or economic relationship, power is present.

However, Lane’s work does not stipulate that governance must entail power utilization, but rather, as noted from literature, he contends that states of dominations are simply subset of relations to power, and does not use the term power to signify any political structure, or any form of governance (Lane 461). Violence is use of power or aggression to govern a nation and Weber argues, “Every state is founded on force and if no social institutions existed, which knew the use of violence” (80), the concept of state would never prevail. Therefore, violence in governance can be useful to certain extents.

To Lane’s perception, power is useful when used in strategic governance, and to expound the essence of coercion in leadership, Weber believes that nations are social structures with individuals possessing unique characteristics and presence of military organizations, judicial systems, and jails are important components of powerful governance that ensure rules and regulations have essence in nations (83). Contrary to Lane’s (467) conceptions, people form rules that they can follow without intimidation.

Another idea is how and why individuals join politics and systems of governance. The intent why politicians or simple individuals join national politics remains a quandary for many scholars across the world. This dilemma underscores the contrast point between Weber and Lane over the meaning of politics within the state paradigm. From their arguments, Weber sees politics as the matter of the state and Lane considers politics as merely individuals playing games.

According to Lane, “these power plays do not occur in abstract conceptual terms, but in empirical and sometimes unseemly political practice, where sharp strategy may prevail even in the most private game” (460). However, from Weber’s conception, “the leadership of a state or of a party by men who (in the economic sense of the word) live exclusively for politics and not off politics” (117), hence politics remains a state issue. Political parties arise with the primary aim of dominating governance of the nation.

Conclusion
Politics is a global concept that attracts substantial debates within the political science paradigm and its real meaning remains a quandary in many academic and societal quarters. Different conceptions have arisen from different researchers over the authentic meaning of the word ‘politics’. From my personal understanding using a combination of Lane and Weber’s literature, politics may principally refer to activities or practices of governance or administration artily or scientifically designed to control human beings (citizens), nations, and all the resources within a state.

Power in politics is and has been an evident characteristic in traditional and contemporary politics where leaders believe on coercion to manage human beings. From a different conception, power is present in governance though politics must entail strategic governance of human beings through human relations.

Works Cited
Lane, Ruth. “Pitkin’s Dilemma: The Wider Shores of Political Theory and Political Science.” Perspectives on Politics 2.3 (2004): 459-473. Print.

Weber, Max. Politics as a vocation, New York: Oxford University Press, 1946. Print.

Politics Essay

by admin | Mar 20, 2023 | Uncategorized

The Relationship Between Political Power and Economic Elites in the UK 
It is believed that those who hold powers in Britain are representatives that we elect to the parliament and who are responsible for making decisions on behalf of the state. We are convinced that politics and the daily running of the State are done by parliament in conjunction with the Office of Prime Minister and the cabinet.

This is better said than done, the fact is that there is another group involved in the daily running of the country.

This is evidenced by the fact that all running of the country does not stop even when parliament closes down in preparation for elections. Indirectly, the government is run by those who are economically endowed and whose economic decisions affect society as a whole.

There are however people in the government who are very rich but do not form the majority who have an effect on the country as a whole. For example, there are those people who own massive corporations, and a decision to shut down one of them may leave thousands of people jobless or may have an impact on the economy of the State. Just as Stephen Bayer once described himself as a vehicle for hire, he tried to show the perfect relationship that the politician or the parliament and the said ruling class have. This is because MPs are told to serve in the best interest of the firms to prevent them from shifting to other places. This, therefore, denies them other options but to serve the interests of the capitalist state as they cannot do without them.

Most people argue that the ruling class is different from the power elites. Initially, this is normally the case but with time it refers to the same thing.

A minority group whose voice in politics matters and include such people as politicians, some hired groups, business people and influential militants. Marxists Political Economics define ruling class as the group of individuals who has the greatest share economically or economically control the nation and comes second in the political arena. According to Marxists, the ruling classes are the same as the capitalists and refer to them as the bourgeoisie. It is made up of those people who control the production of the given society and are in a suitable position to control the working class to get maximum labor from them to maximize their profits. This gives those more powers in such a way that political decisions made are in the interest of the group. This is so because they have influence and are able to control other groups of people and especially inferior groups.

In the years of 1960s and 1970s, many discussions were centered on the works of Ralph Miliband. It was realized that the State was working in favor of the ruling class. It was more so said that Miliband was undertaking decisions that were aimed at directly favoring the economically endowed group.

He claimed that they did for three major reasons namely the empirical approach which states that the state officials come from similar social background, the second reason is that state is in itself capitalist thus need to protect it through encouraging the society to accumulate more resources. The final reason is that any capitalist nation treats the national interests with the same intensity as they treat the capital interests. The argument is that for a nation to be politically stable, it needs to grow economically as well. The economic groups more often contribute to negative veto through the restrictions they openly give to the government and thus inhibit major changes from occurring.

This is referred to as pluralist stagnation. In most cases, the two groups are left with little control over the activities around the nation and hence they just react to situations on which they have very little influence.

In conclusion, it is difficult to classify either classic pluralism theory or classic Marxism as most appropriate to describe the situation in Britain. The two theories make a great impact on the decision-making process in Britain. It is however clear that decision-making or power and economic growth are inseparable. The two go together and must therefore be handled tactfully to maintain a balance.