Biology Essay

by admin | Mar 20, 2023 | Uncategorized

Biology of Memory: Origins and Structures Research Paper
Abstract
Memory is a term used in cognitive psychology to describe the process by which information is coded, stored and retrieved. Encoding involves the conversion of sensory stimuli into forms that can be stored. Storage is the process of forming long term mental records of the information.

Retrieval is the process of extracting information from memory. Memory can be classified into sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory. Memory can be enhanced using techniques such as rehearsal, paying attention, use of mnemonics, and active participation. Active participation is thought to be better than rehearsal. Memory can be tested using techniques such as operant conditioning, recognition, free recall, and detection paradigm.

Memory
Memory is a mental function that enables humans to keep information for later use. It can also be described as a term used in cognitive psychology to describe how people encode, store and retrieve information about the environment (Gazzaniga, Ivry, & Mangun, 1998). This essay will begin with a discussion about memory processes.

This will be followed by a section on classification of memory into sensory, short term, and long term memory. The various types of memory will be discussed in detail. Methods of studying memory will also be examined in this paper. Finally, it will end in a section on personal reflection.

The stages of memory formation include encoding, storage, and retrieval. Information passes the three stages sequentially. Encoding generates information that can stored. Stimuli reaching the brain are received and processed into forms that can be used to represent the stimuli. Encoding generates verbal, acoustic, and image codes. These codes provide avenues by which information can be retrieved. Therefore, it can be said that retrieval relies on encoding. Interpretation of the codes is a function of memory.

Storage
Storage can be described as creation of a long term record in the brain. Storage is a complex stage of memory formation that involves other sub-stages. At this level, the coded information is received and packaged in a manner that will allow its retrieval later. Information may be stored in a hierarchical manner.

For example, skills that are frequently used may be moved to the subconscious portion of the mind. Depending on how long information has been in storage, memory can be classified into sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory.

Sensory memory
Sensory memory is a part of memory that holds information from the environment for a short time. The information is stored for a period of time ranging from a fraction of a second to about a minute. It provides temporary storage for information generated by the sensory organs. It stores the information in the original sensory form.

Examples of sensory memory include iconic memory and echoic memory. Iconic memory carries visual information and lasts for almost 25 seconds. It is a temporary storage for visual information. Echoic memory is a temporary storage for information coming from the ears. Echoic memory lasts for several seconds. Haptic memory is creates a temporary record of tactile information. Information coming from the sensory system is rich in content. However, human beings cannot convert all the information into memory forms.

Short term memory
Short term memory also known as working memory is a form of memory that lasts for several seconds to a minute. Rehearsal can improve short term memory. Short term memory can store a limited amount of information at a time. It can store up to five distinct items at any given time (Cowan, 2001).

However, it has been found out that grouping items like numbers can improve short term memory. Short term memory enables the manipulation of information when attending to activities like decision making and problem solving. It is the form of memory that is constantly in use and allows an individual to interact effectively with the environment. Short term memory may rely on acoustic codes. However, this is not true for all types of information.

Long term memory
Long term memory is a relatively long term form of memory where vast amounts of information are stored. Its capacity is thought to be limitless. Long term memory enables us to recall events that took place several years back. Long term memory is our main repository of information. It shapes our understanding of the environment. Types of repositories in the long term memory include declarative, procedural, and flash back memories.

Declarative memory also known as explicit memory is a form of long term memory that requires the conscious recall of information that can be verbalized. For example, describing the process of neurotransmission to students. Declarative memory is further classified into episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory involves storage of information regarding events that were personally experienced.

It enables an individual to recall events that happened at a certain time in the past. It is a form of memory that stores personal experiences. Semantic memory is personalized. It stores general, factual, and abstract information. Information about ones area of expertise, academic knowledge, knowledge of places, knowledge of people, and knowledge about meaning of words is stored in semantic memory. Learning relies on semantic memory.

Procedural memory is memory that stores psychomotor skills. Information needed to execute certain skills like driving and playing a musical instrument are stored in procedural memory. It stores knowledge that cannot be verbalized but is important in the performance of some activities. It has been described as memory that stores information about how to do things.

Flash back memory stores information that is associated with emotional moments. Events that are linked to certain emotions can be recalled quickly and more accurately. For example, asking people where they were when a close family member passed away. Flash back memory is concerned with storage of unusual events. It tends to be personal in nature.

Retrieval
Retrieval is the process of accessing and taking information out of storage. Typically, information is pulled out of storage when it is needed. Retrieval can be complicated by factors like lack of concentration and interference. Retrieval is associated with certain recall states like tip of the tongue, and serial position effect.

Tip of the tongue refers to a state in which one cannot recall all the information. In such a case an individual is able to only retrieve or recall some characteristics of the information. Serial position effect refers to a situation in which an individual can recall either the first few items (primary effect) or the last items of a list (recency effect). Recall can be prompted using either specific or general retrieval cues.

Memory problems
Forgetting is described as difficulty in retrieving information. Inability to recall information has been linked to some factors like decay, interference, lack of cues, and presence of disorders like amnesia. Decay refers to inability to recall due to disappearance of information over time. This happens when information is not frequently rehearsed or used. Information that is not needed can interfere with retrieval of information (Ellenbogen et al, 2006). This can occur when retrieval cues are no longer specific.

Factors facilitating memory
Rehearsal: repeating and reciting information enhances the number of meaningful associations that can be formed. Memory improves with the number of rehearsals. Self-questioning strategies can be used to enhance this technique. Self-questioning strategies increase the number of associations that can be formed by learners.

Organization: information can be arranged in a particular way to enhance memory. Chunking is one of the strategies used to organize information. Meaningfulness: this strategy encourages students to personalize information by giving personal meaning to it. This strategy is superior to reciting and rehearsing. It is easy to recall information that has meaning. This strategy enables a learner to relate what is being learned with real life situations thus forming long term memory.

Mnemonic devices: these memory aids include loci, acronyms, and key words. Loci method involves positioning of items to be remembered in specific areas of the house. An individual will use a mental map to locate the items in the house thus aiding memory.

Activity: this strategy is used to enhance memory by encouraging students to actively participate in their learning.

Attention/concentration: attention and elimination of distractions enhances learning and the formation of memory.

Methods used to study memory
Techniques used to study memory differ for infants and adults. The methods used to study infants are unique because infants cannot report on what they have learned. Methods used to study infants’ recognition memory are: operant conditioning and visual paired comparison procedure. The methods used to study infants’ recall memory are: deferred imitation technique and elicited imitation technique (Barr, Dowden, & Hayne, 1996).

Methods used to study adults: paired associate learning, recognition, free recall, and detection paradigm. Paired associate learning is a technique that involves learning to associate one item with another. Free recall involves asking subjects to learn some words. The subjects are then asked to recall the items. Detection paradigm tests the ability to remember visual information.

This paper discussed memory in detail. Memory is a term used in cognitive psychology to describe the process by which information is coded, stored and retrieved.

Encoding involves the conversion of sensory stimuli into forms that can be stored. Storage is the process of forming long term mental records of the information. Retrieval is the process of extracting information from memory. Memory can be classified into sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory. Long term memory is the storehouse of knowledge about our surroundings.

Memory can be enhanced using techniques such as rehearsal, paying attention, use of mnemonics, and active participation. Active participation is thought to be better than rehearsal. Memory can be tested using various techniques. The techniques used to test infants are different from those used to test older children and adults. This is due to the fact that infants cannot verbalize what they have learned. In infants, recognition memory and recall memory are tested separately. Therefore, it is difficult to study children.

References
Barr, R., Dowden, A., & Hayne, H. (1996). Developmental changes in deferred imitation by 6- to 24-month-old infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 19, 159–170.

Cowan, N. (2001). The magical number 4 in short-term memory: a reconsideration of mental storage capacity. Behav Brain Sci, 24(1), 87–114.

Ellenbogen et al. (2006). Interfering with theories of sleep and memory: sleep, declarative memory, and associative interference. Curr. Biol., 16 (13), 1290–4. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.05.024

Gazzaniga, M., Ivry, R., & Mangun, G. (1998). Cognitive neuroscience: The biology of the mind. London: Norton.

Politics Essay

by admin | Mar 20, 2023 | Uncategorized

Politics Definition & Meaning Essay
Introduction
Politics is arguably the most renowned and constantly debated issue across the world due to an exceptionally diverse history coupled with endless controversies. The concept of politics and its theory has existed in almost throughout all the documented political science literature. As simple as it looks, the concept of politics can prove significantly challenging especially when individuals are struggling to understand its actual meaning, as different pieces of literature and theories posit different intuitions about the meaning of politics, thus resulting in a mixture of understandings.

In proletarian terms, politics principally refers the art or science involved in governing especially that consist political entity such as administration techniques over a nation and its citizens. Different perceptions over the concept of politics have existed and are augmenting in the political science literature. Based on such conceptions, this essay seeks to examine the concept of politics as articulated in Weber’s ‘politics as a vocation’ and in Lane’s ‘Pitkin’s dilemma: the wider shores of political theory and political science’.

Meaning of politics
The concept of politics, just as postulated by Weber (77), is actually a diverse discipline that comprises any form of sovereign leadership engaged in actions. An elaborative meaning from my personal understanding, politics can principally refer to actions or activities of governing or form of leadership that artily or technically entail managing citizens, a nation, and its resources. A considerably key issue in the concept of politics as assumed by Lane is that the “idea of strategic interactive behavior is the central phenomenon of politics” (460).

To concur with this conception created by Lane from a wider pool of reasoning, politics generally involves activities of a government designed by and for people living within certain social structures including small regions to global spectrum (Weber 79). However, politics is just akin to an organization where laws and regulations imposed by top officials play a critical role in the management of capital and human resources.

Politics thus involves certain aspects of power and structures developed in hierarchical order, which are currently eminent in the prevailing world political order. As Weber discerns, in politics “there is the authority of the extraordinary and personal gift of grace (charisma), the absolutely personal devotion and personal confidence in revelation, heroism or other qualities of individual’s leadership” (79). In its broadest sense, politics is a form of governance that requires an inclusion of the aspects of power or supremacy.

Human relationships, as nature, spur development of the aspect of political growth as political experiences in the modern days are becoming more eminent in human relationships. From perceptions and conceptions revealed from Lane and Weber, a collective meaning of politics emerges. Politics can thus mean activities of strategically managing human beings and resources in a given nation through certain systems of governance that may also involve using power or authority in such administration.

Contrast between Weber and Lane’s conceptions of politics
A combination of conceptions protracting from Lane and Weber may draw an accurate meaning of the concept of politics if well understood. However, the two authors portray significant contrast in their general intuition about politics. Weber’s main perception about politics is the sense that politics are individuals’ power struggle to have control over the state or nation. Weber believes that nations or a state itself is a major source of violence and hence, “politics for us means striving to share power or striving to influence the distribution of power, either among states or among groups within a state”( 85).

Supremacy and charismatic leadership must dominate a nation for human beings to have proper governance in any social structure and that centrality of violence for the state is important. Similar to such perceptions developed, a similar intuition is inherent in the literature documented by Lane (461), where he suggests that whether in human relations, verbal communication, or economic relationship, power is present.

However, Lane’s work does not stipulate that governance must entail power utilization, but rather, as noted from literature, he contends that states of dominations are simply subset of relations to power, and does not use the term power to signify any political structure, or any form of governance (Lane 461). Violence is use of power or aggression to govern a nation and Weber argues, “Every state is founded on force and if no social institutions existed, which knew the use of violence” (80), the concept of state would never prevail. Therefore, violence in governance can be useful to certain extents.

To Lane’s perception, power is useful when used in strategic governance, and to expound the essence of coercion in leadership, Weber believes that nations are social structures with individuals possessing unique characteristics and presence of military organizations, judicial systems, and jails are important components of powerful governance that ensure rules and regulations have essence in nations (83). Contrary to Lane’s (467) conceptions, people form rules that they can follow without intimidation.

Another idea is how and why individuals join politics and systems of governance. The intent why politicians or simple individuals join national politics remains a quandary for many scholars across the world. This dilemma underscores the contrast point between Weber and Lane over the meaning of politics within the state paradigm. From their arguments, Weber sees politics as the matter of the state and Lane considers politics as merely individuals playing games.

According to Lane, “these power plays do not occur in abstract conceptual terms, but in empirical and sometimes unseemly political practice, where sharp strategy may prevail even in the most private game” (460). However, from Weber’s conception, “the leadership of a state or of a party by men who (in the economic sense of the word) live exclusively for politics and not off politics” (117), hence politics remains a state issue. Political parties arise with the primary aim of dominating governance of the nation.

Conclusion
Politics is a global concept that attracts substantial debates within the political science paradigm and its real meaning remains a quandary in many academic and societal quarters. Different conceptions have arisen from different researchers over the authentic meaning of the word ‘politics’. From my personal understanding using a combination of Lane and Weber’s literature, politics may principally refer to activities or practices of governance or administration artily or scientifically designed to control human beings (citizens), nations, and all the resources within a state.

Power in politics is and has been an evident characteristic in traditional and contemporary politics where leaders believe on coercion to manage human beings. From a different conception, power is present in governance though politics must entail strategic governance of human beings through human relations.

Works Cited
Lane, Ruth. “Pitkin’s Dilemma: The Wider Shores of Political Theory and Political Science.” Perspectives on Politics 2.3 (2004): 459-473. Print.

Weber, Max. Politics as a vocation, New York: Oxford University Press, 1946. Print.

Politics Essay

by admin | Mar 20, 2023 | Uncategorized

The Relationship Between Political Power and Economic Elites in the UK 
It is believed that those who hold powers in Britain are representatives that we elect to the parliament and who are responsible for making decisions on behalf of the state. We are convinced that politics and the daily running of the State are done by parliament in conjunction with the Office of Prime Minister and the cabinet.

This is better said than done, the fact is that there is another group involved in the daily running of the country.

This is evidenced by the fact that all running of the country does not stop even when parliament closes down in preparation for elections. Indirectly, the government is run by those who are economically endowed and whose economic decisions affect society as a whole.

There are however people in the government who are very rich but do not form the majority who have an effect on the country as a whole. For example, there are those people who own massive corporations, and a decision to shut down one of them may leave thousands of people jobless or may have an impact on the economy of the State. Just as Stephen Bayer once described himself as a vehicle for hire, he tried to show the perfect relationship that the politician or the parliament and the said ruling class have. This is because MPs are told to serve in the best interest of the firms to prevent them from shifting to other places. This, therefore, denies them other options but to serve the interests of the capitalist state as they cannot do without them.

Most people argue that the ruling class is different from the power elites. Initially, this is normally the case but with time it refers to the same thing.

A minority group whose voice in politics matters and include such people as politicians, some hired groups, business people and influential militants. Marxists Political Economics define ruling class as the group of individuals who has the greatest share economically or economically control the nation and comes second in the political arena. According to Marxists, the ruling classes are the same as the capitalists and refer to them as the bourgeoisie. It is made up of those people who control the production of the given society and are in a suitable position to control the working class to get maximum labor from them to maximize their profits. This gives those more powers in such a way that political decisions made are in the interest of the group. This is so because they have influence and are able to control other groups of people and especially inferior groups.

In the years of 1960s and 1970s, many discussions were centered on the works of Ralph Miliband. It was realized that the State was working in favor of the ruling class. It was more so said that Miliband was undertaking decisions that were aimed at directly favoring the economically endowed group.

He claimed that they did for three major reasons namely the empirical approach which states that the state officials come from similar social background, the second reason is that state is in itself capitalist thus need to protect it through encouraging the society to accumulate more resources. The final reason is that any capitalist nation treats the national interests with the same intensity as they treat the capital interests. The argument is that for a nation to be politically stable, it needs to grow economically as well. The economic groups more often contribute to negative veto through the restrictions they openly give to the government and thus inhibit major changes from occurring.

This is referred to as pluralist stagnation. In most cases, the two groups are left with little control over the activities around the nation and hence they just react to situations on which they have very little influence.

In conclusion, it is difficult to classify either classic pluralism theory or classic Marxism as most appropriate to describe the situation in Britain. The two theories make a great impact on the decision-making process in Britain. It is however clear that decision-making or power and economic growth are inseparable. The two go together and must therefore be handled tactfully to maintain a balance.

Politics Essay

by admin | Mar 20, 2023 | Uncategorized

Political Development Essay
Introduction
Political Development involves the use of a number of criteria to enhance political experience. Precisely, the criteria are used to improve the living standards of ordinary people in developing countries. The essay focuses on the criteria used in political development and their associated influence to the living standards of people in Third World Countries. A number of case studies demonstrating the significance of the criteria in fostering political development are also analyzed.

Political Development Criteria
Generally, Political Development can be viewed as the constant effective increase in the potential of a system in response to social transitions and other institutions, thus providing an effective communication channel between the population and the government.

The development process can be undertaken in three different criteria. These include structural differentiation, system capabilities and equality tendency. The essay focuses on each of the criteria and their associated significance to the development experience and the lives of people in developing countries.

Structural Differentiation
It entails complicating societal relations with regard to the law concerning the increase in the diversity of peoples’ activities within the society and emergence of new interests among the diverse groups of individuals within the society. The reaction of political systems should be immediate so as to be effective. An effective political system is therefore characterised by highly specialised political institutes functionality and strong differentiation of its structures (Vasilik 2006).

Consequently, the specialisation and functional differentiation level of structures yields the difference between developed and traditional political systems. The idea is based on the similar role played by both complex and simple political systems. Thus structural composition aspect forms the basis of the difference between the political systems since developed systems are more structurally differentiated (Vasilik 2006).

The standardised model for socio-economics is used in measuring the relationship between economic development and structural differentiation aspect of political development. According to the model, political involvement is determined by the availability of distinct social resources in a society that bears economic significance.

Participation of individuals that are highly educated and earning higher levels of income in political development far much exceeds the participation noted from the opposite group of individuals that are deemed poor and earning lower salaries. It has also been observed that rich persons having a higher reputation in the society participate in politics far much more than poor people that occupy low status in the society (Yamada, Kohno & Ikeda 2003).

Consequently, adequacy of such structural resources is dependent on their economic development level. Economic development of a nation consequently transforms the social differentiation structure of its individuals. Therefore, effective political development should be aimed towards ensuring an expansion of opportunities to guarantee mobility of labour, an expansion of training centres to escalate the number of trained labourers and an expansion of the education system that is formal.

A government that implements such initiatives transforms the societal social structure. An increase in the number of learned individuals would in return increase their participation in politics, thus fostering political development. Highly learned individuals consequently form part of informed personnel that can occupy higher employment levels hence earn high salaries.

Furthermore, structural political development can aim at transforming psychological perspective of members of a society to foster economic development. Structural circumstances define political actions. Internal processes and preferences of an actor fuel political actions. Political participation of members of a society is, therefore, dependent on their attitudes and beliefs.

Consequently, Political Development should be aimed at integrating such cultures and attitudes into the political system so as to enhance political participation. Adequate access to education, media and wealth foster political participation, thus enhances political development.

Democracy is also fostered by modernisation. Structural differentiation, therefore, aims at increasing individual involvement in politics. An increase in individual participation in politics fosters political development (D’Souza 1994).

The Role of Politics in Development
The study encompassed a number of societies that is Mainland China, the colonial territory of Hong Kong and Taiwan that exhibited democracy. The type of the regime played a significant role in the modification of individual behaviour of members of the societies. It was observed that the rate of economic development within the entire country was unequal since the development rate in some regions surpassed that of other regions within the same country.

Disparity was noted in the distribution of psychological and socioeconomic resources in the country. The difference was attributed to the variations in economic development levels in the regions. From the study, it was evident that the level of government activities in the regions was determined by the available resources. The difference, therefore, enabled an assessment of the relationship between economic development and political participation.

The study revealed that China’s development declined as one moved from the coastal region to the mainland provinces and finally to the provinces occupying the northwest region. The per capita Gross Domestic Product range of individual counties from 1993 statistics was 1,036-48,035 Yuan. Results indicated a positive correlation between economic development in mainland provinces and the level of involvement in politics among citizens.

89.4% of individuals in developed areas confirmed participation in politics whereas 80.5% of individuals in less developed regions affirmed motive-based participation in politics. However, the results were different in Hong Kong since there was a negative correlation between the level of participation in politics and economic development. This was attributed to Hong Kong’s poorly developed electoral system.

Political Development Capabilities
Political development is enhanced by an increase in the capabilities of the political system. The capabilities include survival acts, innovation and mobilisation. Innovation capability encompasses the ability of a political system to adjust and solve emerging problems and its reaction flexibility to emerging and unpredicted issues.

Mobilisation capability entails resource mobility that is both material and human. Resource mobility assumptions include: transforming unclear weights expectations into policies and solid programs, distribution and development of joint action projects, existence of political insights that can offset or adjust weights to fit into certain situations, accumulation of all the required resources and authority on the part of the leaders (Vasilik 2006).

Survival capability entails the ability of the political system to implement appropriate specialised socialisation structures that will enable offsetting of the actions of revolutionists and counterculture development. System capability should conform to both the social and technological aspects. Social capability entails the abilities of private and public organisations and the support obtained from cultural and social factors.

Significant elements of social capability include expert competence, management and organisation expertise in macro businesses, ability of markets and other financial institutions to mobilise capital, stakeholders trust and honesty in the development process and the government’s effectiveness and stability in rules enforcement and fostering economic growth (Fagerberg & Srholec 2008).

Technological capability entails the organisational, economic and social capability required to finance big company investments in the country in a bid to foster economic development. Countries that intend to undergo positive economic development, therefore, have to possess the abilities (Chandler 1990). However, technological capability can also be achieved through technology exploitation and exploration, like in the case of Japan.

Japan’s success was attributed to its ability to link technological innovations with appropriate organisational requirements. Chandler’s perspective used by countries from the West was changed by Japan from “knowledge and creation” to “scale and scope”. Absorptive capacity is the other paradigm that can be used in enhancing technological capability of a political system.

This refers to the ability of the system to recognise emerging foreign information, integrating it into its system and using the information for productive purposes aimed at fostering economic development (Cohen & Levinthal 1990).

Further study on the applications of the various technological capability paradigms depicts technological advancements of newly industrialising countries. Technological capability in developing nations was linked to the implementation of suitable technological activities in the 1970s and 1980s. For instance, technological capability transformed Korea from being an impoverished nation to a global technological hub within 30 years.

Three elements were considered under technological capability. They include innovation, production and investment capabilities. Absorptive capacity was used by the country in achieving technological capability. The paradigm, therefore, focuses on technology exploitation capability besides research and development (Fagerberg & Godinho 2004).

Resource mobilisation entails the use of a number of means. These include: manipulation of trade terms, inflation tax, forced savings, among others. Tax is a significant factor in state capability and formation. The political dimensions of a political system and state capacity and power parameters are measured by tax as one of the key measuring instruments.

Consequently, developing countries should devise appropriate tax systems that foster growth through incentives, meet demands of distribution and collect adequate revenue. According to Toye (2000), state effectiveness and viability are guaranteed by increased revenue.

Tax revenue can be used by the government in infrastructure development and effective delivery of key services that are paramount to economic development. The political system should, therefore, aim at developing a suitable tax system that will finance its operations, thus improve the living standards of citizens.

Political Involvement Impact to Community Development
This involves individual participation in political activities. The traditional submission culture should be transformed into participation culture. The submission culture aimed at ensuring the realisation of administrative responsibilities. On the contrary, the culture of participation entails active engagement into politics regardless of the associated attitudes from distinct institutions. The transition can be realised democratically. Mandatory mobilisation can also be used to effect the transformation.

Equality tendency can be achieved through enactment of universal laws that are applicable to all members of a society without discrimination and privileges. The recruitment process of various holders of different state positions should be based on the applicant’s competence rather than being hereditary or limited to a specific group of members of a given class only (Vasilik 2006).

However, equality tendency can decrease the capability of a political system. Consequently, in a bid to maintain the capability of the system, the level of political representation and the expression of interests of various groups are limited. The criterion thus focuses on functional differentiation of the institutes of the political system.

Political development is thus enhanced when the system integrates the social interests of different groups through deliberate consolidations, aggregating interests using political parties and enhancing political social relations by permitting the acquisition of political information by the media. There are four groups that makeup performance possibilities of political systems.

They include: development of institutes of the political system that is responsible for logical bureaucracy and unity of the country, global possibility that permits the integration of international standards into the system, involvement possibility that entails the creation of a civil and democratic culture and structure and distribution possibility that provides the network for welfare standards’ circulation and effective coordination among social, economic and political structures.

Economic development should correspond to the following dimensions: growth should be noted in the productive capability of the society, individual living standards should be improved significantly and continuously, income and assets distribution should be broadened, health and safety conditions should also be improved, improvement in resource utility and environmental management and improvement in gender equality (Vasilik 2006).

The tenets of the democratic theory used to achieve equality tendency include the principles of universal citizenship, equality, popular sovereignty, weight and legality. The political system should aim at transforming authoritarian regimes into democratic ones.

This entails extending political rights to individuals of a country, establishing electoral procedures that are limited, permitting self-organisation of independent political parties and extending press freedom to enable the acquisition and transmission of certain sensitive political information.

Democratic regimes are effective in producing a wide range of benefits, thus foster economic development. Furthermore, corruption incidences are not prevalent in democratic regimes. This makes them suitable for economic development (D’Souza, 1994).

After the Second World War, many developing nations have undergone a series of economic and political developments. The study on the correlation between the development processes of these countries and the associated democracy is vital to convey the causal relationship between the two variables. Findings of the study indicate that democratic political institutions significantly fostered the process of economic development in the countries.

As a matter of fact, the poor are numerous in developing nations. Consequently, successful politics in such regions is dependent on the ability of a political party to address economic development issues of such poor people. Therefore, election of such politicians into the parliament and government will guarantee enactment of laws that will enhance economic development of poor people since politicians have the propensity of gaining support and favour (De Haan & Siermann 1996).

Therefore, continuous economic development in developing countries coincides with the rate of democratisation. Poverty eradication programs will be implemented by regimes that rely on poor people for their survival. However, the implementation of such programs in developed nations faces multiple challenges since it involves a lengthy process.

It is also evident that democracy emerges with economic development. It is, therefore, effectively sustained in developed nations rather than developing ones. Basing on another study that was conducted on 135 countries for the study period that is 1950 and 1999, 44 countries remained under dictatorship. 34 countries were observed to have sustained democracy throughout the entire study period. There were transitions in the regimes from dictatorship to democratic and vice versa.

Single regime change was noted in 29 countries with 2 countries changing their political regime from democracy to dictatorship and 27 changing from dictatorship to democracy. Double regime transition was noted in 12 countries. The countries that experienced 3, 4, 5 and 6 regime transitions were 5, 5, 3 and 2 respectively. One country that is Argentina experienced 8 regime transitions within the study period (Brass 1986).

Results indicated that dictatorship regimes faded under a number of circumstances. For instance, some dictatorship regimes collapsed during economic crises, whereas others fall as a result of economic development of a country. International forces were also responsible for the crumbling of some dictatorship regimes.

However, empirical results indicate that democracy survived in countries that exhibited an increase in economic development and failed in the case where a country’s prosperity either stagnated or declined. With regard to income distribution, a decrease in the income ratio of top-to-bottom individuals of a country enhanced survival of democracy. In summary, democracy fosters economic development since it guarantees effective allocation of resources to all parts of a country (Patti & Navarra 2009).

Democracy also exhibits effective utility of the allocated resources. This fosters economic development in the country. Political Development should be centred towards establishing democracy regimes to guarantee appropriate resource allocation, especially to the disadvantaged regions of a country.

Transparency and accountability are also enhanced under democracy regimes rather than dictatorships. Consequently, there is a high chance that a country that adopts democracy as a tool for attaining equality tendency improves the living standards of its citizens (Bardhan 1999; Bardhan 2005).

Reference List
Bardhan, P. 1999, ‘Democracy and Development: A Complex Relationship’, in I Shapiro & C Hacker-Cordon (eds), Democracy’s Value, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 93-111.

Bardhan, P. 2005, ‘Institutions matter, but which ones?’, Economics of Transition, vol. 13, no.3, pp. 499-532.

Brass, P. R. 1986, ‘The Political Uses of Crisis: The Bihar Famine of 1966-1967’, The Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 245-267.

Chandler, A. D. 1990, Scale and Scope: The Dimension of Industrial Capitalism, Harvard University Press, Cambridge (MA).

Cohen, W. M. & Levinthal, D. A. 1990, ‘Absorptive Capacity: A New Perspective on Learning and Innovation’, Learning and Science Quarterly, vol. 35, no.1, pp. 128-152.

De Haan, J. & Siermann, C. 1996, ‘New Evidence on the Relationship between Democracy and Economic Growth’, Public Choice, vol. 86, no. (1-2), pp. 175-198.

D’Souza, F. 1994, ‘Democracy as a cure for famine’, Journal of Peace Research, vol. 31, no.4, pp.369-373.

Fagerberg, J. & Godinho, M. M. 2004, ‘Innovation and Catching Up’, in J Fagerberg, D Mowery & R Nelson (eds), The Oxford Handbook on Innovation, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 514-544.

Fagerberg, J. & Srholec, M. 2008, ‘National innovation systems, capabilities and economic development’, Research policy, vol. 37, no.9, pp. 1417-1435.

Patti, D. M. A. & Navarra, P. 2009, ‘Globalization, democratization and economic growth’, Applied economics letters, vol. 16, no.7, p. 731-734.

Toye, J. 2000, ‘Fiscal Crisis and Reform in Developing Countries’, Cambridge Journal of Economics, vol. 24, no.1, pp. 21-44.

Vasilik, M. A. 2006, ‘Political Development: Concept and Criteria’, Political Science. Web.

Yamada, Y., Kohno, M. & Ikeda, K. 2003, Influence of Social Capital on Political Participation in Asian Cultural Context, Asian Barometer, Taipei.

Economics Essay

by admin | Mar 20, 2023 | Uncategorized

Development Economics Discourse Essay (Article)
It is undisputable that economic progress involves painful adjustments, especially with respect to concepts that are considered to be classical. Most of the classical concepts are replaced by contemporary concepts in a bid to attaining economic progress. For instance, old social institutions are disintegrated to form new ones while persons unable to keep to the pace must adjust to the specific requirements of economic progress.

Economic progress aims at making the contemporary world and environment more favorable hence the need to get rid of the various classical concepts, ideologies, and institutions that never assisted in attaining the objective. However, most nations or economies find it difficult to enjoy the benefits of economic progress since there are many communities unwilling to pay the full price of economic progress.

Notably, the problems experienced after the World War II made many nations to wake up in a bid to carrying out specific developments in line with economic progress. This was as a result of the increased poverty during the period. Many nations after World War II became curious of the causes and possible techniques of alleviating poverty, thus leading to economic progress or development.

Development of a nation to achieve economic progress requires adherence to certain basic rules of statement defining various systems of attaining the same. Such systems should define the categories and relationships existing between various concepts of development in order to aid the economic progress process.

For instance, the systems should be able to define hegemonic view of the world in terms of development consequently arousing various players in the global arena to take part in economic progress. It is noteworthy that all stakeholders taking part in economic progress should have the ability to allow for transformation in economic, social, and cultural aspects of nations or economies.

One main cultural force that has shaped significantly the worldwide economy is the discourse of development economics. Understanding discourse of development economics requires deep analysis of its emergence, building on the existing parameters, as well as the necessary conditions for its formation or occurrence.

Moreover, economic progress benefits significantly from the corpus of rational techniques, which include planning, measuring and assessing techniques, professional knowledge, and institutional practices amongst others. In addition, economic progress may never be complete unless stakeholders focus on regimes of representation that are capable of underlying the construction of various processes and parameters. Examples of the parameters vital in this area include peasants, women, and the environment.

Links and relationships between representative powers at work with various economical institutions also play a significant role in economic progress. From these concepts, there is no doubt that economic progress is a process full of many requirements that must be attained at any given moment. In any case, every stakeholder involved in economic progress must be conscious of various parameters that make the process complete.

Generating Discussion Questions
From the ongoing discussion, the following questions arise:

What was the link between post-World War II poverty and economic development?

Post-World War II poverty led economic development and prosperity amongst different nations in the global perspective. During the post-World War II poverty, many nations engaged in developing better ways of having sufficient food to reduce the serious effects of the same. As a result, economists proposed various development methods in curbing poverty. Hence, post-World War II poverty initiated the process of economic development in the global perspective.

It has been close to three decades since the global economy started economic development or progress. During this period there are economies with developed status and others developing and underdeveloped status. What are the possible reasons as to the discrepancy yet economic progress started almost at the same time?

Even though it has been long since the inception of economic development, there have been serious discrepancies amongst the global nations. One reason contributing significantly to such discrepancies in economic progress is political will.

Whereas there are nations with positive political will that necessitates economic progress, some countries lack the same hence falling in the underdeveloped category. In addition, technological discrepancies have led to discrepancy in economic progress where underdeveloped countries unlike the developed ones have poor technological infrastructure hence the difference in economic progress.

What are some of the factors that have played significant roles in economic progress of the global arena?

Some of the factors contributing to economic progress within the global perspective include technological advancements, infrastructural developments, governance, and the presence of political will amongst stakeholders involved. In addition, increase in knowledge and information has significantly contributed to economic progress within the global arena.

Forecasting into the future, may be five decades from today, is there a possibility that there will be more economic progress or development? If so, how will the institutions then differ with the contemporary institutions, which have so far been considered to be economically developed?

The global perspective keeps on changing despite the belief that it is about to reach the economic stretch. Therefore, there is a possibility that there will be more economic progress in future that it is in the contemporary world. Such economic progress will result into more advanced institutions that employ technology greatly as opposed to the contemporary institutions.

Economics Essay

by admin | Mar 20, 2023 | Uncategorized

Economics and Politics: International World Economy Research Paper
Introduction
Economics broadly concerns the process of accumulation, allocation, and exchange of the limited resources in the domestic and international markets. On the other hand, politics focuses on manipulation of power in human disagreements and agreements in the context of civil governance and public welfare.

Political Economy is broadly referred to as the interconnections between economics, politics, and law with the objective of outlining the relations and government policies within a nation and between different nations. Political economy is important for the governments, institutions, and individuals to understand the trends in the competitive and ever changing global economy.

Political economy is an important aspect that analyses the relationship between individuals and the public with general emphasize on government and market relationship with respect to politics, economics, and the public welfare. Political economy applies a system of governance where productions in a capitalized country are managed in consideration of political and economic aspects.

Evolutions in the global economy have led to the emergence of international political economy characterized by institutions such as world trade organization and the World Bank. The emergence of international world economy came by with issues of concern such as global warming, brain drain and security of energy.

The Upsurge of Economics and Politics
Economics and politics in the society are aspects of human existence and living in accordance with the prevailing laws that governs human activities such as banking, agricultural activities, selling, and buying of merchandise.

The prevailing political laws seeks to control wages, prices of commodities and service and create capital in a way that may be or may not acceptable by human beings. Political laws and regulations are made and manipulated by man but economic laws about economic operations are self-perpetuating like the natural laws, which exist on a self-operating basis.

Economics
An Individual in the society encounters every day challenges of making choices with money and property to be able to fulfill his own wants and needs with the limited resources. The basic needs that humans being seek to satisfy every single day entails processes of making economic decisions with specific demands such as spending on electricity bills, food, entertainment, clothing and shelter through regular payment of rent. In economics, areas of focus are consumer decisions in relation to their preference and price variations of commodities.

Concerns and emphasize of economics are the choices made by individual consumers and nations concerning existing products and resources. The choices made are attributed to consumer behavior and character reaction in relation to economic and political constraints that exist in the local and international environment with prevalence of economic factors of trade. Coe (2010:83) argues that economics is a complex highly interconnected phenomenon that is self organizing and adaptive to the changes in markets.

Economics seeks to unravel the mystery of wealth creation in the natural and man made environment where their allocation and management brings about wealthy nation, individuals while other nations, and individuals languish in poverty.

Economics bases its evaluations on the assumptions that all humans have the sole aim of fulfilling their personal interests and desires through rational behavior that are directed towards satisfaction of unlimited wants and needs of human beings. The general understanding of the human behavior and activities in fulfilling self-interests in the politically influential environment depicts the complexity of economics in an environment with scarce resources.

Scarcity of Resources
The complexity of economics arises as a result of the unlimited wants and needs of human beings that are sought to be satisfied by the limited resources in existence. The limited resources basically entail those of individuals and a nation, which can be utilized to for the purpose of accumulating individual and state wealth.

With respect to states, they accumulate wealth through utilization of natural sources, human workforce, and technology while individuals accumulate wealth through utilization of time, money, and skills.
The success and ability for individuals and nations to accumulate wealth is closely dependent on the decisions and choices made by individuals and nations with respect to the limited resources.

The insatiable human needs and wants are what make economics a critical field in human existence as human beings has to make decisions on which goods and services to fore go and which ones to purchase. Individuals and states need to make choices on how to allocate the limited resources effectively and efficiently for maximum utility and satisfaction. Economics critically observes the issues involved in these allocations and decision in the two categories of macro and microeconomics.

Macroeconomics
Macro and microeconomics are the two broad categories that are used to critically observe economic behaviors of individuals and nations respectively. Macroeconomics analyses the total output of a state and the means by which it distributes the limited resources of the workforce, capital, and land with aim of facilitating economic growth and international trade by maximizing production.

In the long run, Macro economic conditions are proved to affect many people across wide variety of occupations. In the short run, macroeconomic condition may only affect a few individuals in limited occupations (Oyer 2006). However, the economy is proved to be controlled and driven by uncontrollable factors such as market forces that keep changing.

Microeconomics
On the other hand, microeconomics analyses behavior in the same context as macroeconomics but with respect to individuals and companies within a particular state. Analysis of microeconomics is more scientific compared to macroeconomic as it analyses particular aspects of the whole economy.

Microeconomics deals with specific individuals and businesses and the understanding of their reactions to price variations. Macroeconomics and microeconomics go a long way in helping economies and individuals to make right choices when managing the scarce resources that are in existence and available at a particular time. The systems through economies allocate the scarce resources at a particular time depend on the type of economy.

Governments and individuals must make the most appropriate choices and decisions in allocating resources for maximum efficiency and utilization due to the nature of insatiable needs and limited resources. Economies can either be command or market economies depending on the nature of governance with respect to the economy.

Market economies are those where allocation of resources are freely determined by the interactions of demand and supply forces in the competitive markets. On the other hand, command economies depend on government decision on how resources are to be allocated. Politics come in where the government has the responsibility of making decisions with regards to effective allocation of the limited resources.

Politics
The government plays a major role in controlling and making decision with regards to allocation of the scarce resources. However, politics has become a major issue of concern as it has been reported to be the biggest contributor to the slow pace of economic growth in many economies.

Communist economies are worse off as politics tend to take the lead in manipulating the process of allocation of resources. In this case, misallocation and misappropriation of the limited economic resources is rampant as politicians seek to satisfy their own selfish interests. Although politics plays a major role in economics, it can be referred to being pathetic issue of concern in many resulting failed states

Communist economies face major challenges due to political control of economic activities of firms and government owned companies through harsh imposition of tax burdens and unfavorable regulations. Politics of these kinds have affected communist economies negatively and thus the need for many countries to depoliticize their economies (Simon, et al, 1977).

The welfare of human beings as far as the limited resources can be utilized to the maximum by the government is the main aspect of concern for the political economy. The unlimited and insatiable needs of human beings are satisfied by the individual wealth, which he accumulates, and the wealth of the nation and its ability to take care of its citizens. Political economy is what is needed for both the government and the individuals to direct workforce and procure all the available resources for maximum satisfaction.

Political economy is the means through which human beings achieve maximum satisfaction of their needs and wants using the limited resources available. Wealth accumulation is objective of political economy where the individual’s wellbeing and the nation at large can be comfortable and maintain the highest achievable living standards. The government is set up for all the citizens’ wellbeing with benefits of liberty, basic needs, and education in line with states economic growth and stability.

The accumulation of state property and wealth has the sole purpose of ensuring all citizens benefit and equally participate in building the economy and enjoying and equally sharing the so-called national cake. The government ensures it sets its population under control and at the same time ensures that the existing wealth and resources is enough to sustain the existing population with respect to social amenities such as health centers and schools.

The wealth of a nation is not the only indication of the general wellbeing of a nation, but basically applies to whether there equal distribution of wealth among the regions, all classes, and minority and majority groups fairly. The population’s wellbeing is what indicates the government has succeeded in managing the state resources in line with the population to prosperity.

The population gets honest rewards with respect to the workforce although in some nations such as China has minority groups reaping bigger benefits than the entire population regardless of their contribution to the nation. Skilled and unskilled workforce should get rewards equal to specific contribution.

The achievement of political economy to organize the nation for the improvement of lives of the poor as well as the rich is exemplary. Political economy pushes for the development of good and skilled governance to champion economic activities towards eradication of poverty and the general wellbeing of a nation. The happiness of all classes of citizens entails proportional reward of the labor force according to their contribution. The government seeks to reward its workforce and motivate its citizens to work harder and enjoy what life brings.

Political economy seeks to explain and understand the nature of wealth accumulation and the reasons why some nations become wealthy some languish in poverty and underdevelopment. The modern economy has become more complex and hard to manage and control for development with respect to utilization of resources and accumulation of property.

Drehle (2010) argue that the government may fail to control allocation of resources in an effective manner and may adopt modern policies through injection of funds into the economy other than allocating resources effectively from production. Through central banks, governments may undertake to use monetary policies to spearhead the nation towards economic growth.

Human beings were brought together by common interests in satisfying the needs of the public. Public interests satisfaction through utilization of wealth was assigned to the government as its responsibility to the public.

The government levied its citizens to generate revenue for its operations and development plans. On the other hand, individual wealth was accumulation and resource utilization is a more complex phenomenon. Government participation in providing favorable conditions and protection of private property was essential for development of the national economy.

Government officials were reported in many states to use political power to accumulate private property using the resources the nation. The complexity of private property and public wealth transparency has been solved through introduction of property rights and laws for the wellbeing if the nation. Legislations were put in place to ensure the economy is controlled and development in a proper manner.

The Workforce
The potential of the population can be estimated through demand and supply of both skilled and unskilled labor for wealth creation. The workforce demanded by is availed according to rewards and working conditions that the economy is offering. The population of a nation offers workforce that is valued and even export it to other economies that have a shortage of skilled and unskilled workforce to utilize resources and capital that exists in a country.

The same way an economy may import workforce form a state that has excess supply and insufficient rewards to sustain motivation and the skilled services being offered by the economy. The political economy seeks to strike a balance between demand of the workforce, supply, and proportional reward. This is relation to aspect of a suffering and hungry population which does not have the means of meeting their needs and wants.

National wealth is the determinant of the ability if a nation to manage its wealth to support and maintain consumption of its population. The production of the workforce is facilitated by the political economy where the wellbeing of citizens is the main objective. Political economy links all factors of production with consideration of natural order of production and consumption.

Naturally, labor depends on production for existence and reproduction while production depends on labor for development and wealth creation. The government has the responsibility of managing this order in a manner that wealth is created and wellbeing of the citizens is sustained and improved.

Conclusion
Economics and politics can be said to have developed as human beings respond to the nature of political interventions in their economic activities in accordance and manipulation of the law to earn a living and improve standards pf living.

The propensity of human beings to respond to political interventions in their economic ventures can be referred as conditioned reflex actions with regards to challenges of nature, political regulations, and laws. Human beings have accepted economics and politics as part of their livelihood although they fail to realize to that these aspects of the economy and politics may become a barrier to improved living standards if not well managed.

References
Coe, N. M., (2011). Geographies of production I: An evolutionary revolution. Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 35 Issue 1, p81-91, 11p. Web.

Drehle, V. D., (2011). The Man Who Said No to Easy Money. Time, Vol. 177 Issue 6, p42-45, 4p. Web.

Oyer, P., (2006). The macro foundation of microeconomics: Initial Labor market conditions and long-term outcomes for economists. Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 20, No. 3, 143-160. Web.

Simon, J. H., et al. (1997). Politics and Entrepreneurship in Transition Economies. Web.